3.2. Languages in multilingual states: functions and status

Week 3 Part 2 will help you to:

• understand what kind of functions a language may have and how the functions emerge,
• understand what language status means, and how it may change.

To reach these goals you are expected to:

• watch the introductory video that shows people’s opinion about the Irish language, how they cherish and want to preserve it;
• read more precisely about the language functions and status, how changes in the society have influenced and directed them;
• to check your knowledge and understanding with a drag-and-drop activity.

Video

What can we do to make a language more important, to give it a higher status in the community? 

How does it happen that one language is perceived as a superior and the other one inferior? A language can be visible which means it is used widely and it is perceived important, but it can also happen that a language is visible, but there is no importance attributed to it in society. Between these two polar positions of “visibility” or “importance” there is enough room for all other languages we come into contact with.

What makes one language more important or more popular, while other languages around may be invisible?  And, more importantly, what could we do if we feel that our language is about to disappear and become invisible?

Watch this video about the Irish language, the language with only 70 thousand native speakers left, the language that has suffered under the domination of the English language, and the language that lots of people still cherish and want to preserve. Hear what these people have to say about it.

Source: Youtube, Little Cinema Galway, published 12 March 2014

Reading

Have you ever thought of how it happens that one language is considered “better”, “more convenient” or “more appropriate” than others for communication than other languages spoken in the society or community? The dominant language(s) may be legally declared as the official or the state language. It is sometimes also called a national language. On the other hand, there might be socially “invisible” languages that we even do not notice, such as languages of immigrants, Roma and other minoritized groups. These also include various language varieties, variants of languages, such as regional and social dialects, pidgins and creoles.

In this reading task you will learn how languages are attributed with or assigned various functions, how past and present power relations determine the hierarchy and the use of languages in society and which changes have occurred during the last decades as far as language functions are considered.

Functions – what do we use the language for

Language is first of all a mean of communication. Long time ago certain words and experessions were used for certain human activity. That way languages obtained their functions, such as in government, religion, trade, court, medicine, and later, education, military service, information and entertainment. Due to wars and changes of superiors several new languages were introduced to the respective societies that led to the language contact and sometimes, to the acquisition of a new language in a certain function. For example, Arabic was introduced through the islamisation into a religious language function in the countries that adopted Islam. Along the European colonisation of the Americas, Spanish reached Latin-America, the colonisation of Africa brought French into North Africa and English into South Asia (India, Pakistan and Bangladesh). All these colonial languages maintain their position in some functions until today.

People became aware of the multiplicity of languages during the last two hundred years only. Along with technological innovations and advances such as printing, steam engine, electricity, railways, telegraph, etc., and several societal changes such as spread of literacy, access to education, cultural and political activities, compulsory military service/conscription, ease of travelling, human rights and free movement, language contacts became more frequent.

Law, military service and education demanding common language

When nation-states emerged and people became citizens with full rights and obligations, the question arose what would be the common language, i.e.in which language the official and public life should be conducted? For the laws to have a legal force, sufficient consensus of all citizens was needed. For that, public debate had to be conducted and common understanding needed to be reached by all. This could only be achieved through a common language and in this way a state or official language was defined. As European countries introduced compulsory universal military service, it caused greater integration of male citizens in their respective countries. As a result, a rise in patriotism and shared values through a communication in one common language appeared.

When universal school education was introduced and people became more mobile, different regions within one nation-state turned linguistically more homogeneous: language shift from traditional dialects to one standard language started and then intensified. One the other hand, sociolects and urban varieties, for example New York City English or Stadin slang in Helsinki, appeared.

This way, languages were hierarchically positioned: there was usually one dominant standardised language (aka official or state language) for adopting laws, conducting everyday official business and providing education. Additionally, there can be other languages with specific functions, such as Latin (or Classical Arabic) for religious practices, scientific and medical terminology. Compared to earlier times, societal changes in the 21st century have brought along significant switches in the functions and status of languages. Increased importance of services in economy has also boosted the instrumental value of languages. As a result, languages have become more highly valued in the labour market where languages skills often are well rewarded. Thus, good command of a language (and not any language, but a good commodity language), has a direct impact on personal economic and social well-being.

Official state language and its uses

Different languages today have also different functions. The main functions of the official state language are:

• Its use in the all branches (legislative, executive, judicial) of state power to conduct state affairs and for public administration and/or policy;
• All official documents are drafted, adopted, and distributed in this language;
• This is the language of official and public use, while the use of other languages may be also regulated;
• To secure its command by the end of the compulsory school attendance, a public education is acquired in this language often from pre-school to higher education levels;
• Its standardised variety (standard language) is established for official and public use and in educational settings.

State governments, which operate in multilingual settings, may also recognize other languages in certain territories and functions. These are usually indigenous and minority languages which are given some functions (i.e. local administration, education, social services) in their traditional territories. A state government may also designate different languages for some functional domains, such as international business and trade, customs, pharmacy, etc. However, as a rule, most of the languages are placed outside state protection. In this case, to sustain a language or to reverse language shift, its speakers have to do something to maintain it. By using the language, transferring it to the next generation, the language may be preserved. Yet, without state protection, language loss may be inevitable. You will learn about language security in the next session of the week.

To conclude, there are no qualitatively superior or inferior languages, but there are languages that are favoured by policies and others that are not.  Languages are invested with values and positioned in a society: their societal status and prestige reflects a specific power nexus.

 

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 Activity

Check your understanding with the following activity.

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