{"id":1273,"date":"2024-04-04T08:57:01","date_gmt":"2024-04-04T05:57:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/sisu.ut.ee\/liivikeel\/32-grammatika\/"},"modified":"2024-12-12T03:22:38","modified_gmt":"2024-12-12T01:22:38","slug":"32-grammatika","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/sisu.ut.ee\/liivikeel\/en\/32-grammatika\/","title":{"rendered":"3.2. Gramatik \/ Grammar"},"content":{"rendered":"

\u00a0<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

This grammar section gives an overview of the Livonian noun case system. Page 1 presents the productive cases, page 2 the unproductive cases, and page 3 the nominative and genitive forms.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Productive noun cases<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

In Livonian, nouns, adjectives, numerals, and pronouns change in both case and number. There are eight productive cases (see the tables below). These include, for example, the dative<\/strong>, which is used to indicate the recipient and also the possessor (in Estonian, the external locative cases are used for this), e.g., Mi\u2019nn\u00f5n<\/strong> v\u022f\u2019\u013c i\u2019bbi <\/em>\u2019I had a horse<\/mark>\u2019 (cf. Estonian Minul oli hobune<\/em>). The dative is also used to indicate the experiencer, e.g.,T\u00e4\u2019mm\u00f5n<\/strong> u\u2019m ki\u0304lma<\/em> \u2019He is cold\u2019<\/mark>. In Livonian, the instrumental<\/strong> case more or less fulfills the functions for which the comitative and translative are used in Estonian, e.g., Pi\u2019\u0146 n\u016boliz k\u012belk\u00f5ks <\/strong>i\u013c s\u016b<\/em>. \u2019The dog licks its mouth all over with its tongue.\u2019 <\/mark>(cf. Estonian Koer lakkus keelega \u00fcle suu.<\/em>),\u00a0ei van\u0101ks<\/strong> <\/em>\u2018(it) got older\u2019<\/mark><\/span> (cf. Estonian j\u00e4i vanaks<\/em>). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

In general, the choice of case ending depends on the structure of the lexical stem or on changes occurring at the boundary between the stem and the case ending. The main rules for choosing the appropriate case ending are described in the next chapters. As shown in the tables below, kis<\/strong><\/em> has unique singular and plural forms, while mis<\/strong><\/em> only has singular forms. Although kis<\/em> generally refers to living or animate referents and mis<\/em> to ones that are inanimate, generalization also occurs (probably under the influence of Latvian, which has one general interrogative-relative pronoun kas<\/em> \u2018who, what\u2019).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The following tables show the singular and plural case endings for the wordskal\u0101\u00a0<\/em>\u2019fish\u2019, nai <\/em>\u2019woman\u2019, p\u016b <\/em>\u2019tree, wood\u2019, <\/mark>and ke\u2019\u017e <\/em>\u2019hand\u2019<\/mark>. Weak-grade forms are marked green<\/mark><\/strong>, strong-grade forms are marked black<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Noun case<\/th>Question word<\/th>Case ending<\/th>Examples<\/th>Examples<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
Nominative<\/strong><\/td>Kis?
Mis?<\/td>		<\/td>kal\u0101
p\u016b<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		nai
ke\u2019\u017e<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Genitive<\/strong><\/td>K\u012ben? ~ K\u012bnga?
Mis?<\/td>		<\/td>kal\u0101
p\u016b<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		naiz
k\u00e4\u2019d<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Dative<\/strong><\/td>K\u012ben? ~ K\u012bngan?
Miss\u00f5n?<\/td>		-\u00f5n -n<\/td>kal\u0101|n
p\u016b|n<\/strong><\/mark><\/td>		naiz<\/strong>|\u00f5n
k\u00e4\u2019dd<\/strong>|\u00f5n<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Partitive<\/strong><\/td>K\u012benta? ~ K\u012benda?
Mid\u0101? ~ Mis?<\/td>		-t\u0101 -d\u0101 -\u0163a ta -da
-t\u00f5 -d\u00f5 -t -\u00f5 -i<\/td>		 ka\u2019ll<\/strong>|\u00f5<\/strong>
p\u016b|d\u00f5<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		n\u0101iz|ta
k\u00e4|t\u0101<\/strong><\/mark><\/td><\/tr>
Instrumental<\/strong><\/td>K\u012benk\u00f5ks? ~ Kingaks?
Miss\u00f5ks?<\/td>		-k\u00f5ks -\u00f5ks -ks<\/td>kal\u0101|ks
p\u016b|k\u00f5ks<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		naiz<\/strong>|\u00f5ks
k\u00e4\u2019d<\/strong>|k\u00f5ks<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Illative<\/strong><\/td>K\u012ben\u00f5?
Miss\u00f5?<\/td>		-z\u00f5 -\u00f5 -\u00f5z<\/td> ka\u2019ll<\/strong>|\u00f5<\/strong>
p\u016b\u2019|z\u00f5<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		naiz<\/strong>|\u00f5
k\u00e4\u2019dd<\/strong>|\u00f5<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Inessive<\/strong><\/td>K\u012bens\u00f5?
Miss\u00f5s?<\/td>		-\u00f5s -s -s\u00f5 -\u0161\u00f5 -\u0161<\/td>kal\u0101|s
p\u016b|s\u00f5<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		naiz<\/strong>|\u00f5s ~ nai<\/strong>|s\u00f5
k\u00e4\u2019d<\/strong>|s\u00f5<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Elative<\/strong><\/td>K\u012benst\u00f5?
Miss\u00f5st?<\/td>		-\u00f5st -st -st\u00f5 -\u0161t
-\u0161t\u00f5<\/td>		kal\u0101|st
p\u016b|st\u00f5<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		naiz<\/strong>|\u00f5st ~ nai<\/strong>|st\u00f5
k\u00e4\u2019d<\/strong>|st\u00f5<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>
Singular case endings<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
<\/div>\n\n\n\n
Noun case<\/th>Question word<\/th>Case ending<\/th>Examples<\/th>Examples<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
Nominative<\/strong><\/td>Kis? ~ K\u012bend?
Mis?<\/td>		-t -\u00f5d -d<\/td>kal\u0101|d
p\u016b|d<\/strong><\/mark><\/td>		 naiz<\/strong>|t
k\u00e4d\u016b|d<\/mark><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Genitive<\/strong><\/td>K\u012bend?
Mis?<\/td>		-t -\u00f5d -d<\/td>kal\u0101|d
p\u016b|d<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		 naiz<\/b>|t
<\/b>k\u00e4d\u016b|d<\/mark><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Dative<\/strong><\/td>K\u012bend\u00f5n?
Miss\u00f5n?<\/td>		-dd\u00f5n -d\u00f5n -t\u00f5n<\/td>kal\u0101|d\u00f5n
p\u016b|d\u00f5n<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		 naiz<\/strong>|t<\/strong>\u00f5n
<\/b>k\u00e4d\u016b|d\u00f5n<\/mark><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Partitive<\/strong><\/td>K\u012bendi?
Mid\u0101? ~ Mis?<\/td>		-\u0163i -\u1e11i -ti -di -i<\/td> ka\u2019\u013c<\/strong>|\u1e11i<\/strong>
p\u016b|\u1e11i<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		nai\u017e<\/strong>|i
ke\u2019\u017e\u017e<\/strong>|i<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Instrumental<\/strong><\/td>K\u012bend\u00f5ks?
Miss\u00f5ks?<\/td>		-dk\u00f5ks -tk\u00f5ks -d\u00f5ks -t\u00f5ks<\/td>kal\u0101|d\u00f5ks
p\u016b|dk\u00f5ks<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		 naiz<\/strong>|tk<\/strong>\u00f5ks
<\/b>k\u00e4d\u016b|d\u00f5ks<\/mark><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Illative<\/strong><\/td>K\u012beni\u017e?
Miss\u00f5?<\/td>		-\u017ei -\u012b\u017e -i\u017e -\u017e -\u012bz -iz<\/td> ka\u2019\u013c<\/strong>|\u017ei <\/strong>
p\u016b\u2019|\u017ei<\/strong><\/mark><\/td>		 nai\u017e<\/strong>|iz<\/strong>
ke\u017e|\u012bz<\/mark><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Inessive<\/strong><\/td>K\u012ben\u0161i?
Miss\u00f5s?<\/td>		-\u0161i -\u012bs -is<\/td> ka\u2019\u013c<\/strong>|\u0161i <\/strong>
p\u016b|\u0161i<\/mark><\/strong><\/td>		 nai\u017e<\/strong>|is<\/strong>
ke\u017e|\u012bs<\/mark><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Elative<\/strong><\/td>K\u012ben\u0161ti?
Miss\u00f5st?<\/td>		-\u0161ti -\u012bst -ist<\/td> ka\u2019\u013c<\/strong>|\u0161ti<\/strong>
p\u016b|\u0161ti<\/strong><\/mark><\/td>		 nai\u017e<\/strong>|ist<\/strong>
ke\u017e|\u012bst<\/mark><\/strong><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>
Plural case endings<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
<\/div>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
<\/div>\n\n\n\n

\u00c4\u2019bprodukt\u012bvizt n\u00f5tk\u016bd form\u00f5d \/ Unproductive case forms<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

The illative, inessive, and elative<\/strong> are related to the corresponding Estonian internal local cases (s-cases). However, their use does not completely overlap. Sometimes they are also used in situations where Estonian would use an external case. For example, in K\u00f5rd ik\u0161 van\u0101 kuo\u2019ig van\u0101d p\u00f5eldk\u00f5ks pu\u0157t\u00f5n mie\u2019rs\u00f5.<\/strong> <\/em>\u2018Once upon a time an old ship with old sails sailed on the sea<\/strong>.\u2019, Estonian would use the external local (adessive) form merel<\/em>, while Livonian uses the internal local (inessive) mie\u2019rs\u00f5<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Livonian also has a series of so-called external local cases<\/strong> (l<\/em>-cases), but they are not productive and are used for certain nouns. e.g., p\u022drand\u00f5l<\/em> \u2018on the floor, onto the floor\u2019. Mostly, there are only traces of them in certain adverbs such as s\u012bel \u0101igal<\/em> \u2018at that time\u2019, a\u02bcbb\u00f5l<\/em> \u2018(to) help\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The instructive<\/strong> (-\u012b\u0146 -i\u0146) can express the manner of action, e.g., j\u0101lgi\u0146<\/em> \u2018on foot, by foot\u2019, although most often it expresses measurement and other units by which something occurs, moves, or is measured such as sum\u0101ri\u0146<\/em> \u2018bit by bit\u2019, st\u016bndi\u0146<\/em> \u2018by the hour\u2019, sad\u012b\u0146<\/em> \u2018by the hundred\u2019, etc. The instructive is attached to the plural form.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

There are also lexicalized essive forms<\/strong> (-n) or phrases with an essive head word, especially temporal adverbs, e.g., \u022d\u2019d\u00f5n<\/em> \u2018in the evening\u2019, tu\u2019lbiz \u0101igast\u00f5n<\/em> \u2018next year\u2019, rarely also adverbs of place, e.g., ku\u2019onn\u00f5<\/em> \u2018at home\u2019, and adverbs of state, e.g., op\u0101tijiz\u00f5n<\/em> \u2018as a teacher\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Nominat\u012bv ja genit\u012bv form\u00f5d \/ Nominative and genitive forms<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

The nominative and genitive singular generally have no ending and are mostly the same form, e.g., s\u00f5br\u0101<\/em> : s\u00f5br\u0101<\/em> \u2018friend (nom) : friend (gen)\u2019<\/mark>. However, some words do have different nominative and genitive forms. The following are typical situations where this occurs:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \n
  1. Nouns of two or more syllables with an i<\/em>-final nominative form (especially adjectives as well as agent and action nouns) and two one-syllable words (tuoi <\/em>\u2019second, other\u2019<\/mark> and nai <\/em>\u2019woman\u2019<\/mark>) add z in the genitive<\/strong>, e.g., e\u2019\u017emi <\/em>: e\u2019\u017emiz <\/em>\u2019first (nom) : first (gen)\u2019<\/mark>, j\u016bok\u0161iji <\/em>: j\u016bok\u0161ijiz <\/em>\u2019runner (nom) : runner (gen)\u2019<\/mark>, nai <\/em>: naiz <\/em>\u2019woman (nom) : woman (gen)\u2019<\/mark>. Note that the word stem can sometimes change, e.g., si\u2019\u0146\u0146i<\/em> : si\u0146\u012bz <\/em>\u2019blue (nom) : blue (gen)\u2019<\/mark> (see Section 1.3 for more on stem alternation). Genitive forms of vowel-final personal names that have no other special meaning are also formed by adding z, e.g.,Oto <\/em>: Otoz<\/em><\/mark>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  2. If a word ends in z in the nominative, then z is lost in the genitive<\/strong>, e.g., ro\u2019vz <\/em>: ro\u2019v <\/em>\u2019people (nom) : people (gen)\u2019, m\u012bez<\/em> : m\u012b\u2019e <\/em>\u2019man (nom) : man (gen)\u2019, t\u00f5ur\u00f5z <\/em>: t\u00f5ur\u00f5 <\/em>\u2019dear (nom) : dear (gen)\u2019<\/mark>. Changes can also occur in the word stem here, e.g.,rik\u0101z <\/em>: rikk\u00f5 <\/em>\u2019rich (nom) : rich (gen)\u2019<\/mark>. Ordinal numbers starting with \u2018third\u2019 also belong to this type; in these, z alternates with nd, e.g.,kuolm\u00f5z<\/em> : kuolm\u00f5nd <\/em>\u2019third (nom) : third (gen)\u2019<\/mark>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  3. A number of one-syllable words ending in the consonants \u1e11 \u0146 \u0157 \u013c in the nominative, lose their word-final palatalization in the genitive<\/strong>, e.g.,tu\u2019\u013c <\/em>: tu\u2019l <\/em>\u2019fire (nom) : fire (gen)\u2019, s\u0113\u0146 <\/em>: s\u012ben <\/em>\u2019mushroom (nom) : mushroom (gen)\u2019<\/mark>. This also includes situations where \u1e11 \u0146 \u0157 \u013c occur as part of a consonant cluster, e.g., nu\u0157m <\/em>: nurm <\/em>\u2019field (nom) : field (gen)\u2019<\/mark>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  4. Words with an \u0161<\/em>-final nominative form ending in a consonant cluster have a different genitive form, e.g., l\u00e4p\u0161 <\/em>: laps <\/em>\u2019child (nom) : child (gen)\u2019, ik\u0161 <\/em>: \u012b\u2019d <\/em>\u2019one (nom) : one (gen)\u2019<\/mark>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  5. One-syllable words with a \u017e<\/em>-final nominative form sometimes end in d <\/em>in the genitive, e.g.,ve\u2019\u017e <\/em>: vie\u2019d <\/em>\u2019water (nom) : water (gen)\u2019, ke\u2019\u017e <\/em>: k\u00e4\u2019d <\/em>\u2019hand (nom) : hand (gen)\u2019<\/mark>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

    There are three possible endings in the nominative plural<\/strong>: -t<\/em><\/strong>, -d<\/em><\/strong> ja -\u00f5d<\/em><\/strong>. These are added to the genitive stem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The ending -t<\/em><\/strong> is used after z and ks, e.g., nai<\/em> : naiz<\/em> : naizt<\/em> \u2019woman (nom) : woman (gen) : women (nom pl)\u2019, vast\u016bks<\/em> : vast\u016bkst<\/em> \u2019answer (nom), answer (gen) : answers (nom pl)\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The ending -d<\/em><\/strong> is used in the following situations:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    a) after a vowel, e.g., p\u016b <\/em>: p\u016bd <\/em>\u2019tree (nom, gen) : trees (nom pl)\u2019, pi\u2019\u0146 <\/em>: pi\u0146\u012bd <\/em>\u2019dog (nom, gen) : dogs (nom pl)\u2019<\/mark>;
    b) after l r j following a long vowel with plain tone, e.g., s\u016br <\/em>: s\u016brd <\/em>\u2019large (nom, gen) : large (nom pl)\u2019<\/mark>;
    c) after l r j following a long vowel in an unstressed syllable, e.g., m\u00e4t\u0101l <\/em>: m\u00e4t\u0101ld <\/em>\u2019tussock (nom, gen) : tussocks (nom pl)\u2019, sal\u0101j <\/em>: sal\u0101jd <\/em>\u2019thief (nom, gen) : thieves (nom pl)\u2019<\/mark>;
    d) after j or v following a vowel in a syllable with broken tone, e.g., ra\u2019j <\/em>: ra\u2019jd <\/em>\u2019chair (nom, gen) : chairs (nom pl)\u2019, n\u00f5\u2019v <\/em>: n\u00f5\u2019vd <\/em>\u2019a piece of advice (nom, gen) : pieces of advice (nom pl)\u2019<\/mark>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The ending -\u00f5d<\/em><\/strong> is used after consonant-final stems, e.g., loul <\/em>: l\u014dl\u00f5d <\/em>\u2019song (nom, gen) : songs (nom pl)\u2019, v\u022didag <\/em>: v\u022didag\u00f5d <\/em>\u2019butter (nom, gen) : butters (nom pl)\u2019<\/mark>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The genitive plural<\/strong> differs from the nominative plural only in personal and demonstrative pronouns, e.g., ne <\/em>: n\u00e4nt <\/em>\u2019they (nom) : their (gen)\u2019<\/mark> (cf. s\u00f5br\u0101d<\/em> \u2019friends (nom pl, gen pl\u2019).<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    \u00a0 This grammar section gives an overview of the Livonian noun case system. Page 1 presents the productive cases, page 2 the unproductive cases, and page 3 the nominative and genitive forms. Productive noun cases In Livonian, nouns, adjectives, numerals, …<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":320,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-1273","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sisu.ut.ee\/liivikeel\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1273","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sisu.ut.ee\/liivikeel\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sisu.ut.ee\/liivikeel\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sisu.ut.ee\/liivikeel\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/320"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sisu.ut.ee\/liivikeel\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1273"}],"version-history":[{"count":29,"href":"https:\/\/sisu.ut.ee\/liivikeel\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1273\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1479,"href":"https:\/\/sisu.ut.ee\/liivikeel\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1273\/revisions\/1479"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sisu.ut.ee\/liivikeel\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1273"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}